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Julian's Persian War
Julian's Persian War, or the Perso-Roman War of 363, was the last undertaking of the Roman emperor Julian, begun in March 363. It was an aggressive war against the Persian Empire ruled by the Sassanian king Shapur II. Shapur is believed to have expected an invasion by way of the Tigris valley. Julian sent a detachment to join with his ally Arshak II of Armenia and take the Tigris route. Meanwhile, with his main army he advanced rapidly down the Euphrates valley, meeting only scattered opposition, and reached the walls of the Persian capital Ctesiphon where he met and defeated the Persian army at the Battle of Ctesiphon (363). Unable to take the city, and with a faltering plan of campaign, He was misled by Persian spies into burning his fleet and taking a disadvantageous route of retreat in which his army was constantly harassed and his progress crawled to a halt.
In one of the skirmishes Julian was wounded and later died of his wounds leaving his successor along with his army trapped in Persian territory. The leaderless Roman army chose Jovian as Julian's successor. The new emperor, in light of the "crushing military defeat" the Romans had suffered, was left no option but to agree to humiliating terms in order to save the remnants of his army, and himself, from complete annihilation.〔Beate Dignas & Engelbert Winter, "Rome & Persia in Late Antiquity; Neighbours & Rivals", (Cambridge University Press, English edition, 2007), p94, p131 & p134〕 The ignominious treaty of 363 transferred to Persian rule the major cities and fortresses of Nisibis and Singara, and renounced the alliance with Armenia, giving Shapur ''de facto'' authority to invade and annex Arsacid Armenia as a result. Thus Arsaces II of Armenia was left without any military or diplomatic support. He was captured and imprisoned by Shapur in 368; he committed suicide in 369 or 370 whilst in Persian captivity.
== Aims and preparations ==
According to contemporary Roman sources Julian's aim was to punish the Persians for their recent invasion of Rome's eastern provinces; for this reason he refused Shapur's immediate offer of negotiations.〔Libanius, ''Orations'' 17.19, 18.164〕 Among the leaders of the expedition was Hormizd, a brother of Shapur II, who had fled from the Persian Empire forty years earlier and had been welcomed by the then Roman emperor Constantine I. Julian is said to have intended to place Hormizd on the Persian throne in place of Shapur.〔Libanius, ''Letters'' 1402.3〕 A devout believer in the old Roman religion, Julian asked several major oracles about the outcome of his expedition.〔Theodoret, ''Ecclesiastical History'' 3.21-25〕
The philosopher Sallustius, a friend of Julian, wrote advising him to abandon his plan,〔Ammianus Marcellinus, ''Res gestae'' 23.5.4〕 and numerous adverse omens were reported; at the urging of other advisers he went ahead.〔Ammianus Marcellinus, ''Res gestae'' 23.5.10; Socrates Scholasticus, ''Ecclesiastical History'' 3.21.6〕 He instructed Arshak II of Armenia to prepare a large army, but without revealing its purpose;〔Ammianus Marcellinus, ''Res gestae'' 23.2.2; Libanius, ''Orationes'' 18.215; Sozomen, ''Ecclesiastical History'' 6.1.2〕 he sent Lucillianus to Samosata in the upper Euphrates valley to build a fleet of river ships.〔Magnus of Carrhae FGrH 225 F 1 (Malalas, ''Chronography'' 13 pp. 328-329)〕 These preparations are thought by scholars to have suggested to Shapur that an invasion from the north, by way of the Tigris valley, was Julian's plan.
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